 | Term | Definition |
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psychology |
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes |
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empiricism |
the view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment |
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structuralism |
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind |
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functionalism |
a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function--how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish |
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humanistic psychology |
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; used personalized methods to study personality in hopes of fostering personal growth |
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nature-nurture issue |
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors |
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natural selection |
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations |
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levels of analysis |
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon |
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biopsychosocial approach |
an integrated perspective that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis |
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basic research |
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base |
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applied research |
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems |
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counseling psychology |
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being |
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clinical psychology |
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders |
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psychiatry |
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy |
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hindsight bias |
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have forseen it |
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critical thinking |
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions; rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions |
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theory |
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations |
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hypothesis |
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory |
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scientific method |
a self-concerning process for asking questions and observing nature's answer |
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operational definition |
a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables; for example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures |
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replication |
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances |
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culture |
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next |
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case study |
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles |
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survey |
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of them |
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false consensus effect |
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors |
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population |
all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study |
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random sample |
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion |
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naturalistic observation |
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation |
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correlation |
a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other; the correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1 |
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scatterplot |
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables; the slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables; the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation) |
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illusory correlation |
the perception of a relationship where none exists |
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experiment |
a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable); by random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors |
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double-blind procedure |
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo; commonly used in drug-evaluation studies |
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placebo effect |
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent |
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experimental condition |
the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable |
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control condition |
the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment |
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random assignment |
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups |
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independent variable |
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied |
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dependent variable |
the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable |
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mode |
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution |
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mean |
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing them by the number of scores |
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median |
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it |
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range |
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution |
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standard deviation |
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score |
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statistical significance |
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance |
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biological psychology |
a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior |
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neuron |
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system |
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dendrite |
the busty, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body |
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axon |
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands |
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myelin |
a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next |
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action potential |
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon; it's generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane |
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threshold |
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural response |
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synapse |
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron; the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft |
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neurotransmitters |
chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons; when released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse |
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acetylcholine |
a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction |
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endorphins |
"morphine within"; natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure |
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nervous system |
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems |
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central nervous system |
the brain and spinal cord |
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peripheral nervous system |
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body |
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nerves |
neural "cables" containing many axons; these bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs |
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sensory neurons |
neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the CNS |
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motor neurons |
neurons that carry outgoing information from the CNS to the muscles and glands |
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interneurons |
CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs |
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somatic nervous system |
the division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles; also called skeletal nervous system |
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autonomic nervous system |
the part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart); its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms |
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sympathetic nervous system |
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations |
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parasympathetic nervous system |
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy |
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reflex |
a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response |
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neural networks |
interconnected neural cells; with experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results |
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endocrine system |
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream |
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hormones |
chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another |
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adrenal glands |
a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys; they secrete the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline, which help to arouse the body in times of stress |
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pituitary gland |
the endocrine system's most influential gland; under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands |
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lesion |
tissue destruction; a brain type of it is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue |
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electroencephalogram |
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface; these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp |
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PET scan |
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task |
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MRI |
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain |
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fMRI |
a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans; shows brain function as opposed to brain anatomy |
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brainstem |
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions |
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medulla |
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing |
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reticular formation |
a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal |
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thalamus |
the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla |
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cerebellum |
the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance |
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limbic system |
a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex; includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus |
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amygdala |
two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion |
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hypothalamus |
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion |
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cerebral cortex |
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center |
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glia |
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons |
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frontal lobes |
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments |
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parietal lobes |
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position |
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occipital lobes |
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field |
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temporal lobes |
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear |
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motor cortex |
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements |
| |
sensory cortex |
the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations |
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association areas |
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking |
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aphasia |
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding) |
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Broca's area |
controls language expression--an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech |
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Wernicke's area |
controls language reception--a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe |
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plasticity |
the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development |
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corpus callosum |
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them |
| |
split brain |
a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them |
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